Author
God (2 Tim. 3:16; 2 Pet. 1:21), who inspired the Apostle Paul (2 Cor. 1:1; 10:1) to write the letter.
Date
Probably written in AD 56 from Macedonia, most likely in Philippi (2 Cor. 2:13; 7:5; Acts 20:1). Paul had left Ephesus and met up with Titus in Macedonia and learned from him about the how the Corinthian church was doing. This was during his third missionary journey, on which he would eventually continue to travel throughout Greece, visiting again Corinth and the other churches he founded before finally heading to Jerusalem, where he was arrested and put in jail (Acts 20:1-3, 13-16; 21:27-33; cf. 2 Cor. 12:14).
The dating of Paul’s second letter to the Corinthians has to accommodate the time necessary for all the events described after he wrote 1 Corinthians to occur. It is estimated that 2 Corinthians was written approximately 9-12 months after he wrote 1 Corinthians.
Audience
To all the believers in the church at Corinth, as well as all the believers in Achaia, southern Greece (2 Cor. 1:1). Paul had almost certainly become acquainted with many of the recipients of this letter during his first visit to Corinth when he stayed in the city for eighteen months, witnessing and teaching (Acts 18:11).
Biblical Canon
This second letter is collected together with Paul’s first letter to the Corinthians and is listed among the collection of writings known as the “Church Epistles” that Paul wrote to several early Christian communities, many of which he had founded during his missionary journeys. The Epistle of 2 Corinthians is aptly titled as a subsequent correspondence between Paul and the church in Corinth, and as such, the content of 2 Corinthians follows chronologically upon what was written in 1 Corinthians.
As with many of Paul’s other “Church Letters,” he weaves together doctrine, reproof, and correction in order to guide the believers in their faith and to reveal to them the understanding he had received by revelation concerning the administration of grace, the gift of the holy spirit, God’s secret plan for the joining together of both Jew and Gentile in the church, the promise of redemption and salvation, and proper Christian behavior both inside and outside the church.
Background
In 2 Corinthians 2:1, Paul alludes to a second visit he made to Corinth, which he describes as a “sorrowful” or “painful” visit. If Paul wrote 1 Corinthians in AD 55, then sometime in the year between AD 55 and the composition of 2 Corinthians in AD 56 he returned to Corinth and was devastated by the circumstances he encountered there. This trip would not have been difficult to make because both Corinth and Ephesus were port cities and there was lots of boat traffic across the Aegean Sea between the two cities.
It seems that the Corinthian church did not receive the letter of 1 Corinthians well and was still greatly troubled and plagued by many of the problems Paul had tried to address. Thus, sometime during Paul’s ministry efforts in Ephesus, he returned to Corinth for a second visit. Unfortunately, this visit is not mentioned in Acts 19, but Paul mentions it in 2 Corinthians and makes explicitly clear that he does not want to come and see them again under those same circumstances (2 Cor. 2:1; 13:2).
Furthermore, Paul also mentions a letter he wrote in tears after departing from this painful second visit to Corinth (2 Cor. 2:3-4). What this indicates is that in the course of his time in Ephesus, Paul had written a subsequent letter after 1 Corinthians in response to the disintegrating state of the Corinthian church he discovered when he visited the second time.
This letter is described by Paul as one which was written “with many tears” and “out of an extremely troubled and anguished heart” (2 Cor. 2:4). The content of this letter is unknown, but it was most certainly a harsh letter filled with stern rebuke concerning the Corinthians because Paul declares how he came to learn that the letter grieved them and produced such deep longing, sorrow, and zeal in them (2 Cor. 7:7-10).
Before being able to visit a third time, Paul decided to send Titus to Corinth, probably having him deliver the “tearful letter.” Titus then returned to Paul and reported back about how it was received and the present state of the church (2 Cor. 7:6). Upon hearing the encouraging report of Titus, Paul rejoiced that his letter was well received this time around and the Corinthians exhibited repentance and obedience (2 Cor. 7:7).
Another development that had happened in Corinth since Paul wrote 1 Corinthians was the emergence of some antagonists who raised objections to some of Paul’s teaching and considered him to be an “inferior” apostle (2 Cor. 11:5; 12:11). It appears that these were fellow Christians who were claiming to be apostles with knowledge superior to that of Paul (Paul ironically refers to them as “super-apostles”), and they were criticizing and undermining Paul’s ministry efforts by speaking out against him and teaching a different gospel that led people away from their devotion to Christ (2 Cor. 11:3). It is unknown whether these were resident believers in Corinth who decided to assume authority within the church, or if they were travelling missionaries like Paul from elsewhere who had recently arrived in Corinth. The fact that Paul wrote about traveling teachers needing letters of recommendation favors the position that they were likely traveling teachers (2 Cor. 3:1-2). Whichever the case, they were interfering and destroying the trust of those in Corinth and causing them to turn away from Paul and the message of the good news he had delivered unto them.
Purpose for Writing
Following Paul’s composition of 1 Corinthians and his second visit to Corinth, there still remained a rift with the congregation due to their continued practice of immorality and internal rivalry. After Paul wrote his “tearful letter,” the return of Titus and the news of the state of the Corinthian church was the reason the Lord directed Paul to pen yet another letter. The news that Titus delivered led Paul to decide not to return to Corinth on his way to Macedonia but to reserve his visit until he after he visited Macedonia. This elicited accusations against Paul for being insincere and fickle and not remaining true to his word. Against such accusations, Paul felt the need to defend himself and explain the grounds for his sudden change of mind (2 Cor. 1:12-2:4).
In 2 Corinthians, Paul addresses a number of issues within the congregation concerning their view of his ministry, the message of the good news, and his apostleship. He also presents his case against the false apostles who were stirring up trouble by speaking out and discrediting his authority and distorting the message of the good news he preached. But Paul also writes this letter in an attempt to express his joy for how many of the Corinthians had been restored to him and took his rebuke to heart and changed their behavior.
Throughout the letter it is apparent that Paul’s motives for writing were to exhibit his concern for this congregation, to convey the joy he feels on account of Titus’ report that they have repented and turned from their past wrongdoing, and to pastor this unstable church through competing views from these so-called “apostles” who had been misguiding them and poisoning the Corinthians’ view of him.
Moreover, Paul dedicates considerable space in the letter to discussing his ministry efforts for the poor believers in Jerusalem and his intention to come and collect the offering that the Corinthians promised they would prepare for him (2 Cor. 8-9; cf. Rom. 15:28; 1 Cor. 16:1-4). Within this section, Paul seeks to discuss financial giving to those in need and the ministering that such giving enables. In addition, Paul mentions that such giving is a demonstration of love (2 Cor. 8:24), and that when it comes to giving, “the one who sows little will reap little, but the one who sows generously will reap generously” (2 Cor. 9:6).
Paul closes the letter by explaining that he desires the Corinthians to test themselves whether they are in the faith and also to become strong and mature believers (2 Cor. 13:5, 9). But Paul also mentions that he is writing in a severe tone now so that when he does come visit, he will not have to reprove them in that way in person (2 Cor. 13:10).
Message
Second Corinthians can be divided up into several major sections each addressing a particular core issue surrounding what was going on at the church in Corinth during Paul’s absence. These issues are a response according to the report that Paul received from Titus after he wrote his “tearful letter” (2 Cor. 2:4).
In the first section (2 Cor. 1:12-2:13), Paul begins by addressing the charges of being unreliable in the eyes of the Corinthians, which was derived from the Corinthians’ perception of his abrupt change of plans to not come and visit them on his way to Macedonia (2 Cor. 1:15-17). It seems the Corinthians were accusing Paul of being fickle and capricious in telling them “Yes” (he will visit) and then changing his mind and saying “No” (he will not visit). Paul defends himself in the face of these allegations by claiming his change of plans was not on account of his lack of desire to see them or any indecisiveness, but because he wanted to spare them the pain associated with his rebuke of their behavior, which he seems to have warned them about in his “tearful letter” (2 Cor. 1:23-2:4). This rebuttal stands paramount because the Corinthians would likely question the good news that was preached among them if the messengers who preached it were not trustworthy themselves.
In the next section (2 Cor. 2:14-7:16), Paul launches into a lengthy defense of his ministry as an apostle that is aimed at defending the validity of his position in response to some apparent agitators who were questioning the legitimacy of his apostleship. Paul rhetorically questions, “Who is competent [for the work of the ministry]?” (2:16), and then proceeds to enter into a contrast with his own God-given appointment as a minister of the new covenant and the false notion that some Corinthians felt he should have letters of recommendation to validate his authority. Paul’s answer to this is that his ministry is not one of the letter, but of the spirit, for he has been made a competent minister of the new covenant by God (2 Cor. 3:1-6). This new covenant is far more glorious than the old as it is permanent, brings righteousness, and reveals the glory of the Lord, unlike the old covenant which brought condemnation, was temporary, and is now fading away (2 Cor. 3:7-4:6). But even in the weakness of human flesh, Paul preaches this life-giving gospel for the benefit of the Corinthians amidst much persecution and suffering because of the hope that, while his body might perish, he will be raised from the dead by the Lord Jesus and receive the “incomparable eternal weight of glory” (2 Cor. 4:7-18).
And in the same way that the old covenant was temporary, being replaced by an even more glorious covenant, so too our physical bodies, which are temporary, will be replaced one day by an even more glorious heavenly body (2 Cor. 5:1-10). And because God will judge each person, Paul feels persuaded to preach the good news out of a pure motive and on account of the love of Christ, who died for everyone so that those who live through him will no longer live to themselves (2 Cor. 5:11-15). This is because through the good news about Christ, all who believe have become a new creation in Christ, old things have passed away, and God has reconciled all thing unto himself in Christ (2 Cor. 5:16-21).
Paul then comes full circle and appeals to the Corinthians for them to consider the good news of reconciliation and the grace of God, and how he has labored so diligently to preach this message amidst extreme hardships and persecution (2 Cor. 6:1-10). Furthermore, Paul adds that his desire is that the Corinthians match him in his acceptance and openness toward them (2 Cor. 6:11-13). In a further attempt to implore the Corinthians to open their hearts to him, Paul conveys how much he is rejoicing over them in hearing from Titus that they have repented and become obedient (2 Cor. 7:1-16).
In the following section (2 Cor. 8:1-9:15), Paul switches gears and takes up the issue of the collection for the believers in Jerusalem that the Corinthians had promised they would gather and have prepared. However, even with all the repentance and obedience that the Corinthians showed since Paul’s previous visit and the writing of his harsh letter, their promised offering still remained incomplete (2 Cor. 8:8-11). Paul wanted the Corinthians to finish the task of preparing the collection and to view the sharing of their financial abundance with those in need as a way of demonstrating their love and equality (2 Cor. 8:8, 11-14). Within this section, Paul also addresses the nature of generous giving and sharing in the body of Christ and how one’s abundance can provide for the lack of another, but it is God who ultimately provides what each person needs (2 Cor. 8:8-15; 9:6-15).
In the final section (2 Cor. 10:1-13:10), Paul seems to pick back up from 2 Corinthians 2:17-3:3 where he mentions other preachers who peddle the gospel for profit and challenge his apostolic ministry. Against these “false-apostles” (2 Cor. 11:13), Paul defends himself and also counters their malevolent accusations by establishing that he is not commending himself or venturing outside of the ministry that God has given him; rather he is working and boasting only in those things that God has assigned to him (2 Cor. 10:1-18). In response to all the personal attacks from his opponents, Paul feels that he must speak in bold terms as a “fool” in order to cut through the noise of his opponents in order to get the Corinthians to understand what is actually happening (2 Cor. 11:1, 16-19). And so, Paul engages his opponents head-on by tackling their slanderous allegations one-by-one, dismantling their arguments.
First, Paul combats the accusation that his message was not legitimate because he was a poor public speaker by saying that even though he was not a trained orator, he was not “unskillful” in knowledge (2 Cor. 11:3-6). Secondly, Paul explicitly distances himself from his opponents in regard to receiving financial support for his ministry. Apparently, some of Paul’s opponents were claiming to be equal with Paul, saying that they were just asking for financial support from the Corinthians like Paul was—a claim which Paul quickly refutes by reminding the Corinthians that he did not ask or receive any financial help from them. Instead, he actually used money from other churches to support himself while he was preaching the good news and ministering in Corinth (2 Cor. 11:7-15).
Paul continues upbraiding the accusations of his opponents (who were likely boasting in their achievements) by boasting in his weaknesses, non-achievements, and sufferings (2 Cor. 11:17-33). In addition, Paul refuses to boast in visions and revelations, though, by all means, he certainly could (2 Cor. 12:1-7). And in a climactic proclamation, Paul asserts that at the very core of the gospel message is the paradox that strength does not depend upon one’s own prowess or abilities or receiving visions and revelations, but that Christ’s power is “made perfect in weakness” (2 Cor. 12:9). And if these credentials are still insufficient for the Corinthians, Paul goes on to proclaim how other signs, miracles, and wonders were done by him, which are the true signs of an apostle (2 Cor. 12:11-12).
In closing his letter, Paul indicates his intention to come visit a third time (2 Cor. 12:4, 20; 13:1). He reminds the Corinthians of the purity and blamelessness with which he has conducted himself toward them, both personally and with respect to the delegates that he has sent to them (Titus and “the brother,” 2 Cor. 12:14-18). But Paul also warns the Corinthians that he fears that he will arrive there, and they will not have corrected their wrong behavior, and so he will then have to execute judgment (2 Cor. 12:20-13:3). Thus, Paul exhorts the Corinthians to “test themselves” in the faith and prove that they pass the test so that Paul will not have to “use severity” when he comes (2 Cor. 13:5-10). Lastly, Paul closes the letter with final greetings and a typical benediction (2 Cor. 13:11-13).
